TENDENCIAS DE LAS POLÍTICAS DE FORMACIÓN DE CAPITAL HUMANO AVANZADO  EN ALGUNOS PAÍSES  DE LA OECD

Presentación

Este documento —concebido como un hipertexto— es una suerte de caja de herramientas sobre las políticas de capital humano avanzado en ciencia y tecnología y su implmentación en el área de los países de la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE), más conocida por su sigla en inglés como OECD, y sobre las múltiples lecciones que estas políticas arrojan para Chile y los países en vías de desarrollo.

Ofrece un amplio espectro de contenidos y recursos digitales --artículos, informes, libros en línea y sitios vinculados-- disponibles en Internet, los cuales pueden ser utilizados con fines de información e ilustración sobre los cambios que experimentan en la actualidad las políticas de promoción del capital humano avanzado y los debates que generan.

La selección de los materiales, su ordenación y la interpretación que de ellos aquí se formula son de responsabilidad exclusiva de los autores del hiprtexto, José Joaquín Brunner y Ana Montoya.

Nota

Todos los materiales contenidos en este hipertexto son de propiedad de los respectivos autores y/o de los sitios y organizaciones de los cuales han sido extraídos para facilitar la navegación a lo largo de este documento.

Indice

Introducción

Caso de Irlanda

Caso de Japón

Caso de España

Caso de los países Nordicos

Caso Europeo: La formación en programas avanzados de investigación (Ph.D.).

Consejo Europeo de Candidatos Doctorales e Investigadores.

La movilidad internacional de Recursos Humanos para CyT

 

Introducción

La teoría económica y la evidencia internacional muestran que la capacidad de los países en el campo de la ciencia y tecnología, y sus capacidades de innovar e introducir cambios tecnológicos en los procesos productivos es determinante para poder alcanzar altos niveles de desarrollo.

 A su vez, la capacidad de innovación se halla relacionada estrechamente con los niveles de inversión en investigación y desarrollo (I&D), la productividad de esta inversión y la calidad del capital humano disponible en la economía. Por lo tanto, la formación de capital humano avanzado constituye un requisito elemental para sustentar el crecimiento económico de los países.

Durante los últimos años los países de la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE), más conocida por su sigla en inglés como OECD , han reforzado los sistemas de ciencia, tecnología e innovación con el fin de alcanzar niveles de desarrollo aún mayores, dentro de las reformas de este sistema se han potenciado reformas con el fin de potenciar  la formación de capital humano , factor clave para el desarrollo.

En este documento se revisa sucintamente la situación actual  de un grupo de países de la OECD: Irlanda, Japón, Países Nórdicos y  España.

Además, se agrega información y análisis sobre las principales carencias en la formación de capital humano avanzado en el área de las ciencias y tecnología  en el espacio europeo de educación superior y hacia donde se encaminan las reformas para mejorar el sistema en la comunidad europea como en los países de la OECD.  

También se puede encontrar aquí información sobra la situación de los doctorados y post-doctorados en diversos países de Europa.  

Adicionamente se entrega información sobre criterios para la formación de doctores en ciencias e ingenierías así como también respecto de la importancia que de generar un sistema de  medición de capital humano en ciencia y tecnología  comparable entre distintos países.

EL CASO DE IRLANDA

Irlanda al igual que el resto de los países de la comunidad europea, ha establecido una política para incrementar los recursos  humanos en el área de la ciencia y tecnología.

En el documento Irish Submission to the High Level Group (HLG) on Increasing Human Resources in Science and Technology (PDF, 568 KB) se enuncian los principales aspectos de la estrategias para lograr este objetivo en los diferentes niveles del sistema educacional. A continuación se presentalos principales acápites del documento.

Since 2000 Ireland has been actively working to make an important contribution to the development of the European Research Area.

The Barcelona Target of 3% spend of GDP on R&D by 2010 requires a significant increase in the number of researchers across all of the sciences, from engineering to humanities.  Currently the EU average is 5.68 researchers per 1000 population while the US has 8.08 per 1000. We need to achieve a target of 8 per 1000 for the EU by 2010, which is equivalent to an extra 700,000 researchers. This will be a difficult target for Ireland to achieve as we are currently at 4.98 per 1000. In Ireland, our current output of graduates and postgraduates will not be sufficient to meet this demand. Indeed, the supply of researchers may not be sufficient to meet the demands made by our current investment in R&D (1.4% of GDP) and there will be a deficit of a few hundred.

In Ireland extensive work has been done in this area coordinated by Forfás (the science policy advisory agency,). The Expert Group on Future Skills Needs (EGFSN), was established in 1998 by the Irish government to advise it on aspects of education and training related to the future skills requirements of the enterprise sector of the Irish economy; The EGFSN has been particularly concerned in recent years with the increasing deficit in Science and Technology skills, and the implications for the future growth of key economic sectors, if current trends are left unchecked.

Ireland's economic future depends critically on the supply of an increasing number of people qualified in science and engineering. But at the very time this demand is increasing, there has been a sharp falloff in interest in the sciences throughout our education system. The Task Force on the Physical Sciences

was established by the Minister for Education and Science in 2000 to address concerns about the declining numbers of students opting to study the physical sciences in Irish schools and colleges. The Report (PDF, 1086 KB) of the Task Force on the Physical Sciences (2002), found that the problem is real; indeed, if anything its extent and importance have been understated.

Recent data show a continued downward trend in the number of Leaving Certificate students applying for science and engineering places in the universities and institutes of technology for the 2003/2004 academic year. This trend is replicated at third level, where recent research carried out by University College Dublin  (October 2003), indicates that 30% of science students either fail or drop out in their first year. Gender equity is also an issue in Science and technology in that a significantly smaller proportion of girls take physical sciences at upper secondary level. Unless there is a major national effort to reverse the falloff, any other money we spend on attracting overseas investment will go largely to waste.

Over the years there have been a number of separate initiatives to promote science. There is now a national strategy to bring all of these excellent efforts together under one umbrella; Discover Science and Engineering. This new integrated awareness programme was launched by the Taoiseach in October 2003 and is the implementation of one of the recommendations of the Task Force on the Physical Sciences. It brings together the existing awareness activities under Forfás; Science, Technology, Innovation Awareness Programme, and the Expert Group on Future Skills ; the Institution of Engineers (STEPS); and the awareness activity under FÁS (Discover Science).

This programme aims to expand on their activities in a way that will eliminate duplication and provide a more focused and effective return. Discover Science & Engineering is the product of extensive consultation with the various stakeholders involved in science promotion in both the public and private sectors.

Actividades en curso y proyectadas

Discover Science and Engineering (DSE) es uno de los principales programas que pretende integrar todas las actividades actuales en los distintos niveles de educación.

It addresses primarily the general public, primary and secondary school students with some impact on third level undergraduates programme is a radical step to integrate all of the current activities that raise awareness and promote science and engineering.

The underlying aims of Discover Science & Engineering are to

◦ Raise awareness levels of the physical sciences

◦ Promote a greater understanding of science amongst the general public

◦ Increase the numbers of students studying the physical sciences

◦ Promote a positive attitude to careers in science and technology

Las principales iniciativas elaboradas por el DSE han sido :

One of the first initiatives of DSE is the ExplorationStation - An Interactive Learning Centre with a Predominantly S & T Focus.

Exploration Station will be a custom designed interactive learning centre with programmes and exhibits, dedicated to providing to children, young adults, their carers and teachers a handson learning and discovery experience. It will cater for children ranging in age up to 15 years and will work with schools, serve as an education and outreach centre for teachers in relation to its exhibits and programmes and cooperate with the Department of Education and Science   and the National Curriculum for Schools.

Another important related activity under the DSE banner is the new and successful 13 programme television series called SCOPE that has been running on Irish national television from November2003. The series is designed to appeal to the teenage market, 15- 19 year olds and shows the science behind every day events and activities of interest to young people. So far the viewing figures have been considered excellent and there are proposals to commission a further series.

In response to the recommendations of the Task Force on the Physical Sciences the Department of Education and Science has been successful in implementing priority actions including; revised syllabi have been introduced at primary and Junior Certificate levels; new syllabi have been implemented for leaving certificate physics, biology and chemistry; reviews on Mathematics, grading of subjects in the Leaving Certificate and gender equity issues in science have been undertaken. All of these developments are supported by national inservice programmes for teachers.

The Irish universities have established a promoting science group through the Deans of Science. The purpose of this programme is to provide information about the various scientific disciplines, details of and links to undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in each of the seven Irish Universities. A key part of this is describing and promoting careers in science.

Posgrado, posdoc e investigadores senior

There are many initiatives at national and European level relating to postgraduate and postdoctoral researchers.

The European Commission  is currently promoting the career of researcher and has already issued a communication on this topic. The communication has been part of a Council Declaration by the Competitiveness Council  where the 15 Member States underlined that researchers play a key role in stimulating European growth and competitiveness and support the development of research training and careers. There are diverse issues that must be tackled to develop research as a career and many of these are linked to national law (immigration policy), recruitment practices in industry and academia. The European Researcher’s Charter and Code of Conduct  (as presented in the Draft Council Resolution) will provide a national and European context for action within individual Member States.

In Ireland intend the work in close coordination with the Commission to ensure a streamlined approach.

Ireland fully endorses and supports all of the Commission recommendations on Researcher Mobility and Careers. A number of national studies and recommendations have been made in this regard.

Otro punto clave en el desarrollo de este nivel académico es la creación de dos consejos de investigación: Irish Research Council for the Humanities and Social Science (IRCHSS) y el Irish Research Council for Science, Engineering & Technology (IRCSET).

Información adicional

Información adicional sobre capital humano avanzado en ciencia y tecnología en Irlanda:

The Irish Universities Association (IUA)

The Higher Education Authority

National Council for Forest Resrach and Development (COFORD)

Science Foundation Ireland

Irish Universities Promoting Science

EL CASO DE JAPÓN

La  política nacional japonesa en ciencia y tecnología ha hecho de esta  una nación creativa. En este país se  hacen esfuerzos parr promover la inversión del gobierno en I&D  y desarrollar reformas en el sistema de ciencia y tecnología.

El capítulo 3 del  artículo How Human Resources in Science and Technology (HRST) Schould Be Fostered and Secured (PDF, 194 KB) señala cuales son los principales aspectos que Japón debería fomentar para mantener sus niveles de capital humano avanzado en ciencia y tecnología y de qué forma se debe enfrentar la escasez de éste. A continuación se transcriben los principales pasajes de este documento.

1.  Construction of an Environment for Science and Technology Activities Attracting Excellent Personnel and inspiring them to Display Their Creativity

Attractiveness of Occupations to Excellent Personnel: The impression that youth have of science and technology and of the occupations engaged in science and technology is thought to have a great influence on their choice of an occupation as researcher.

In the light of the present state in which science and technology are apparently not perceived as attractive by young people, it might be difficult to secure HRST in the future without enhancing the attractiveness of occupations such as scientists and engineers.

Otro punto clave para generar un ambiente propicio para el fomento de la ciencia y la tecnología tiene relación con el salarios, si se compara Japón con USA  the higher wages are paid for most occupations requiring professional skills and expertise than the average wage for all the workers in both countries. In Japan, however, the wages for occupations requiring professional skills and expertise, except for "aircraft pilots" and "medical doctors", are not particularly high, as compared with the average wage.

Such a situation is supposed to be a factor preventing excellent personnel from being attracted to occupations in the science and technology field.

Considering that creativity is an attraction of research activities, not only the researchers' will to displa creativity, but also the attraction of the research profession will be greatly reduced if the results of research activities are not reflected in the treatment of researchers. It is necessary to construct a system making proper evaluations and reflecting the results thereof in the treatment of researchers so that researchers are rewarded through their research activities.

1.1 Expansion of Opportunities for Women Researchers, etc. to Play an Active Part

The number of women researchers increased rapidly after the enforcement of the Equal Employment Opportunity Law (in 1986), but has been slightly leveling off in the last few years.

The proportion of women researchers is high in universities and colleges, and the proportion is on the increase there. In companies, etc., the proportion of women researchers had risen rapidly since the latter half of 1980s, but it has been leveling off in the last several years, and the absolute number of women researchers is still at a low level, about a third of that in universities and colleges.

Thus, the number of women researchers is on the increase, but it is not large anyway, considering that women account for more than 40% of all the employees in Japan.

1.2. Foreign Researchers

Receiving foreign researchers in Japan is expected not only to make it easy to obtain the most advanced knowledge overseas, but also to contribute to raising the abilities of Japanese researchers by intellectual stimulation and improved understanding of foreign cultures through interchange with foreign researchers. In addition, if researchers conducting research activities in Japan can be selected from among many researchers in the world, it will be possible to make the research environment in Japan more competitive.

The number of foreign researchers and teachers increased rapidly in the 1990s. It is supposed that most of them are teachers at universities and colleges, including language teachers, etc. But the actual number of foreign researchers is not available.

Further, very few foreign students come to study in Japan from advanced countries in terms of the number of foreign students per 1,000 students, as compared with those in the United States and major European countries, indicating the low level of international interchange at Japanese universities.

1.3. Research Environment Inspiring Researchers to Display their Creativity

The Japanese research community is low in mobility, compared with that in the United States and Europe. A low-mobility research community means that it is difficult for creative researchers to move looking for better treatment and a better work environment corresponding to their research performance and aptitude, preventing researchers from displaying creativity. From the viewpoint of fostering researchers with a broad outlook, too, it is considered important to improve mobility. Further, in the tendency of science and technology becoming more and more cross-disciplinary, new knowledge often arises from a mixture of various areas of knowledge and diverse fields of specialty, and therefore, from the viewpoint of improving vitality of research organizations through gathering of diverse human resources, too, it is essential to improve mobility of human resources.

2. Developments of Human Resources in Science and Technology Rich in Creativity

Para poder responder y enfocar High-Level Specialist Education to Cultivate Creativity as Researchers es necesario to promote further enhancement of education and researches at graduate schools in Japan, it is an urgent matter to make improvement and expansion putting weight on quality as well as quantity.

Apart from the improvement of educational content at graduate schools, as mentioned above, it is also important to take measures to improve environment conditions, such as economic support to students, so that graduate school students can fully concentrate on research activities. It is also important to reform various economic support systems so that they may be utilized more flexibly, and to work out proper methods of operating such systems at each university

 For Japan to be a scientifically and technologically creative nation, however, it is vitally important that excellent personnel who have acquired and developed a high level of expertise, technology and creativity on doctoral course will be able to gain high income corresponding to their abilities in society.

2.1 Development of Human Resources in Science and Technology Responding to the Needs of the Society

Companies have so far attached importance to in-house training and made light of education in universities and colleges. In recent years, however, with shortened R&D period and intensified international competition, we have seen, in the area of fostering and securing human resources in companies as well, an increasing tendency for companies to recruit more immediate capabilities.

However, private companies claim that the abilities of new graduates of graduate schools are short of their expectations.

In addition, departure from education placing too much emphasis on knowledge is cited by many companies as what they expect of education at universities and graduate schools.

Further, collaboration between industry and academia in the field of education, such as expansion of internship programs and appointment of lecturers from the private sector, is also expected. In this respect, the utilization of the Graduate School Coordination Program designed to promote collaboration between nacional research institutions and companies, etc. can be one of the solutions.

On the other hand, universities are required to take various measures to reform the content and method of education in the graduate school doctoral courses with a view to cultivating further creativity, and to produce human resources able to deal with a wide range of needs. It is also important for the students enrolling on doctoral courses to increase their own added value with a sense of purpose.

2.2 Needs for researchers by research field

3. Realization of Society Fostering Human Resources in Science and Technology

3.1 People's Interest and Understanding Necessary to Secure Human Resources in Science and Technology

Interest in Science and Technology

According to a comparison between Japan and the United States regarding the public's level of interest in science and technology, people interested in science and technology) are fewer in Japan than in the United States Possibly such a low level of interest in science and technology in Japan could cause a decrease in the number of human resources with hopes and dreams in science and technology and make it difficult to develop and secure HRST with a spirit of challenge and creativity in the future.

Children's interest in and understanding of science and technology

The result of a survey by NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) Broadcasting Culture Research Institute, indicates that the extent of adults' interest in science and technology is influenced by their interest in science and technology in their childhood.

In order to secure excellent HRST, it is desired that the younger generation will grow with interest in and understanding of science and technology.

3.2 Measures to Increase Interest in and Understanding of Science and

Technology

In order to produce excellent HRST, especially research personnel rich in creativity, the role of the elementary and secondary school education is very important. In this respect, it is required to provide education developing creativity while making sure the basics, not just transmitting knowledge unilaterally.

3.2.1       To make sure "Academic Ability"

It is expected to develop schoolchildren's attitude of thinking about science and technology and making creative and intellectual activities for themselves, making use of "Period for Integrated Study."

It is also important to guide schoolchildren displaying excellent abilities in science and mathematics so that they can further develop such abilities.

At the same time, it is essential to guide schoolchildren who have not fully understood the content of the course of study so that they can make sure of the basics and deepen understanding of science and technology through careful guidance, such as giving them supplementary lessons.

3.2.2 Development of teachers in charge of education in science

Some active researchers say they have been influenced by their teachers in their elementary and coger secondary school days. It is precious to have teachers who can teach the fun of science through experiments, etc., to elementary and lower secondary school children full of curiosity. It is important to recruit teachers of such ability, and it is necessary to take various measures, including training of teachers, so that teachers close to schoolchildren can recognize and understand the significance of science

and impart to children.

"Science Literacy Enhancement Initiative"

Further, ability in English is an important grounding for HRST. Improvement in English education is considered to have an important role in developing HRST, too.

3.2.3 Promotion of wider-view education

Universities, etc. have the role of making people fully aware of the relations between science and technology and society, aside from the role as an institution to develop HRST. In the knowledge-based society of today, it is desired not only to develop knowledge within the framework of either the so-called sciencerelated or liberal arts-related field, but also to foster highly-cultivated human resources who have an understanding of science and technology and can make an independent judgment about the way of dealing

with science and technology.

3.2.4 Promotion of lifelong learning

In order to increase grounding in science and technology, it is important for people to be provided with opportunities to continue learning science and technology throughout their lifetime. From the viewpoint of fostering HRST, it is also important to give continuing learning opportunities to parents of schoolchildren, especially mothers having closer daily contact with their children. Accordingly, it is important to maintain the knowledge level of HRST, and at the same time to establish new sources of HRST through expansion of learning opportunities, including places of adult education.

3.2.5 Importance of interpreters

It is very difficult for the general public to acquire knowledge of highly sophisticated and advanced science and technology by themselves without help. In order to solve social problems caused by the development of science and technology in recent years, too, it is important to build the foundation of communications between the world of science and technology and society. In this sense, the role of what is called "interpreter," acting as a bridge between researchers, engineers, etc. as specialists and the general public as non-specialists, is of increasing importance.

Información adicional

Información adicional sobre tendencias capital humano avanzado en Ciencia y tecnología en Japón:

􀁂􀁑􀁕􀁆􀁓 􀀔

Japan's Science and Technology Basic Policy Report  3 How Human Resources in Science and Technology Should Be Fostered and Secured

Science And Technology Basic Plan (PDF, 260 KB)

EL CASO DE ESPAÑA

El  artículo Bringing S&T Human Resources Back In (PDF, 347 KB) analiza las políticas implementadas por el gobierno español para incrementar la cantidad de investigadores  mejorar la condiciones de empleo para los PhDs. Se transcriben a continuación los principales pasajes.

The paper describes the situation of science and technology (S&T) human resources in the context of Spanish research policy and explains the mechanisms by which policy-makers link problems and solutions in the context of a policy sequence, by analysing a case that deals with Spain’s main problems in S&T human resources in the public sector.


S&T human resources policies, especially those developed by governments, are an unknown realm of research policy analysis; this probably has to do with the wide variety of developments and strategies in S&T human resources at national level that make it difficult to build up knowledge about the different models, and the different institutional arrangements affecting the supply and demand of scientific personnel.

Situation in S&T human resources

At the end of the 90s, it was generally agreed that the main problem of the Spanish S&T system was the low level of R&D investment. While European Governments complained about the gap between the European Union (EU) and the USA, the gap between Spain and the EU average was also significant.

While the Spanish gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was 85% of the EU average, in 2001, Spain had 0.96% of the GDP allocated to R&D, while the EU average was 1.98%;2 in other words, 48.5% of the EU average. Additionally, there was insufficient expenditure on R&D executed (52.4% in Spain vs 64.5% in the EU average) and financed (47.2% in Spain vs 56.2% in the EU average) by Spanish industry, and very small business expenditure on R&D (BERD) in relation to industrial output.

While the issue of R&D expenditure was the main problem identified in policy documents and public debate, concerns also emerged regarding human resources in S&T and some problems were identified.

Los principales problemas en España en relación a los recursos humanos dedicados a la Ciencia y la Tecnología son:

However, the quantitative improvement in S&T human resources witnessed in the last few years could also be the result of a small change in the methodology of Spanish S&T statistics. In 2001, grant holders (becarios) represented approximately 25% of the total number of researchers, and females accounted for a greater proportion.

The outcome of a gradual process of dualisation in the Spanish labour market for research, whereby the gaps between those who have a permanent position and those who do not have been widening not only in terms of salaries, but also in terms of social security benefits, employment stability and career prospects.

The Spanish labour market for research is not only characterised by a very high proportion of temporary researchers and trainees, but also by the Fac. that the average expenditure per researcher, in purchasing power parity (PPP), in the public research sector (government laboratories and universities) is significantly lower in Spain than in other EU countries .This is not the case in the business enterprise sector. Considering that the labour cost usually accounts for 60% of total expenditure, we could assume that there is also a problem associated with low wages in the Spanish research system, mainly in university and government sectors, in comparison with other countries.

Role of human resources in S&T policies

Las políticas de fomento a recursos humanos en Ciencia y Tecnología en España han estado presente durante las últimas décadas.  A continuación se describen brevemente las etapas de las políticas de recursos humanos.

 It started with research training, in the 60s, as in many other countries, as a decentralised policy under the direct responsibility of the PRCs. PRCs were able to provide grants and fellowships to cover the expenses of the trainees either in a centre in Spain or abroad.

In the 70s, in the context of a financial collapse in the research system (Sanz-Menéndez, 1997) training new scientists and researchers through doctoral programmes became a political objective and research training emerged as a Government policy (Fernández Esquinas, 2002). A very large and centralised

programme (Formación de Personal Investigador (FPI) to train research personnel) was consolidated in the 80s as a mechanism for living grants to thousands of individuals, to pay them a salary or compensation, while they were preparing their PhDs. These grants were a monthly Government subsidy given to young people engaged in dissertation activities. It is worth mentioning that there was a policy tool precursor (re-incorporation contracts) that enabled young researchers working abroad to return to a research job in Spain.

The Ramon y Cajal programme is part of this policy sequence that continued into the early 80s associated with what was called “research training policy”. Over the years, however, the focus of policy has shifted. The specific policy tools and instruments have evolved; new instruments and a change of emphasis have appeared, building up and making the existing portfolio more complex. Government policy has shifted from a simple training or mobility policy to one focused also on employability issues. Over the long run, there has been a swing from simple (individually based) strategies of training researchers (with more or less focus on some priority areas) to actions much more oriented to the objective of researchers’ employability (either in private companies or in the public research sector) as a way of promoting the use and transfer of the R&D

capabilities created .

In Spain, as in many southern European countries, training in research activities has followed a centralised model in which the government acts as ‘guarantor’, while in many other countries, with much wealthier institutions, the research centres and universities develop and implement the research training

policy in a decentralised way.

 In the 90s, regional governments were very active in supporting S&T human resources as a way of creating a highly qualified labour force in their regions.

The actual policy mix that the Spanish Government, through the Ministry of Science and Technology, is managing, includes a combination of different tools and instruments that have been combined and prioritised in different degrees over the years. The Ramon y Cajal Programme was a new type of instrument, whose objectives were ambiguously set out in the National R&D and Innovation

(R&D&I) Plan (2000–2003). The new Plan had defined very ambitious objectives, such as spending 1.29% of GDP on R&D, but no new significant

Budgetary amount was added to the traditional RTD (research, technology and development) budget, and most of the new ideas never got off the drawing board. After a broad participatory process with research actors and users, the Plan was approved including a new policy instrument known as “five-year contracts (+5) for PhDs in public research institutions”: 2,000 such contracts were forecast. This became the policy constraint within which the Ramon y Cajal Programme started to be designed.

En esta tabla se resumen los principales instrumentos utilizados por el Gobierno Español para el fomentar el Recurso humano en Cienica y Tecnología:

Información adicional

Información adicional sobre capital humano avanzado en ciencia y tecnología en España:

Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia – Ciencia y Tecnología

Plan Nacional de Investigación Científica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica

Sistema Español de Ciencia – Tecnología - Empresa

Human Resources In Science And Technology In Spain: A Review Of The Information Sources (PDF, 118 KB)

Spanish Council Presidency

EL CASO DE LOS PAÍSES NÓRDICOS

Research and Higher Education in the Nordic Countries (PDF, 644 KB)

Durante las últimas décadas las instituciones de R&D y las políticas ligadas a esta actividad han sido similares en los 5 países nórdicos  Dinamarca, Finlandia, Islandia, Noruega y Suecia. Todos ellos han realizado reestructuraciones socio-económicas y han internalizdo en su funcionamiento  la globalización del mercado de la educación junto con la necesidad de crear una sociedad basada en el conocimiento.

Las tendencias internacionales de la educación superior, la ciencia y la tecnología han inspirado las políticas y prácticas de estos países; en particular, tal como aparecen enunciadas y luego desenvueltas en el marco de la Declaración de Bolonia.

Aunque cabe destacar que the Lisbon Target to allocate 3 percentage of GDP to research by the year 2010 has already been accomplished by some Nordic countries. According to World Economic Forum’s annual review of global competitiveness (2004) four Nordic states, namely Finland, Sweden, Denmark and Norway are ranked among the top six for world growth prospects. The leading Nordic performance is attributed to strong macroeconomic management, good legal environments, quick adoption of technology in the private sector and innovation.

Las Similitudes de historias, culturas y condiciones políticas de los países Nórdicos conducen a características similares en investigación y educación superior. Aunque posee también diferencias. Aquí se analiza las características del sistema de investigación de la región y se comparan los modelos de estos países.

A. Public and Private Investments in R&D: Algunas características importantes de estos países

Los niveles de iversión en I&D de los países nórdicos son de los más altos entre los países de la OECD:

·         Sweden with 4.3 and Finland with 3.4 have achieved the highest R&D investments as percentage of GDP worldwide. Denmark, Iceland and Norway spend 2.4, 3.0 and 1.6 of GDP on R&D .

·         The government-financed R&D as percentage of GDP in the Nordic countries is the highest among the OECD countries. Even the share of GDP on R&D financed by industry is highest in Finland and Sweden, second only to Japan. Share of GDP on industry financed R&D is growing rapidly in Denmark (6,4%) and in Finland (4,9%). In comparison corresponding figures for the US and EU-15 mean are 1,4% and 1,3% respectively.

·         Some of the top ten R&D performers in terms of publications and impact in the EU are higher education institutions in Denmark, Finland and Sweden. With regard to technological performance and amount of patents per million populations, Sweden and Finland have achieved the highest figures, much higher than the EU-15 mean of 80, namely 214 and 156 respectively. These countries in 2001 held a third and forth place in the world, following the US (316) and Japan (265). Denmark with 106 patents per million populations held a sixth place.

·         With regard to human resources, statistics reveal that Finland and Sweden attain the highest level of researchers by 1000 labor force in the EU, higher than the US level and subsequent only to Japan. The growth in the total numbers of researchers (1995-1999) was high too, namely 50% in Finland, 19% in Sweden and 16% in Denmark. Even with respect to the number of new PhDs in science and technology per 1000 population, Sweden (1,24), Finland (1,01) and Denmark (0,49) demonstrated higher rates in 2001 than the US (0,41) and Japan (0,25). This implies that there is a substantial reservoir of young people in Scandinavia qualified for becoming new researchers in the knowledge-based economy.

B. Recent Reforms in Research and Higher Education

There are many differences but also some similarities in research policy and reforms in the Nordic region the last several years. University research is currently perceived within the framework of R&D and innovation policy, and quality of results is assessed on the basis of societal relevance of outcomes

Accountability has gained increasing importance. Cooperation with the private sector is given particular attention in all countries in the region. External funding from diversified sources has hence increased considerably. At the same time a higher proportion of research funds are allocated by means of competition while the share of public funding granted directly to the institutions is decreasing. Implications include changes in organizing and distributing funding, and in organizing research environments. A reinforcing of governance, evaluation, benchmarking and assessments of outcomes has been noticed in all countries.

Another trend is greater state intervention in research policymaking along with increased emphasis on strategic planning and government monitoring. A strengthening of the research councils has taken place in Denmark, Iceland, Norway and Sweden creating a more flexible system for funding that encompasses strategic research directions and promotes interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary approaches. New centers of excellence have been established (Denmark, Finland and Norway) together with new foundations based on public money (Denmark, Norway and Sweden) all of which focus on problem-oriented research programs.

In addition, user oriented postgraduate programs have been launched.

C. Nordic Models: Los países poseen distintas estrategias para fomentar la ciencia y la tecnología

In Denmark, a national higher education and research strategy was introduced in 2003 aimed at strengthening higher education training and research and creating new framework conditions for the science system. At the same time, the university system, the public research institutions and the research councils were reformed to respond to greater socioeconomic demands for enhanced competitiveness. A number of recent reforms have been implemented, including a quality-promoting evaluation system and a quality-based research budgeting model.

The Danish higher education system is characterized by flexibility and life-long learning schemes that facilitate mobility between its different parts. Future challenges comprise the development of institutional structures and the effective functioning of university boards, introduced by the new University Act, as well as improving relations with industry. One key issue is the sustainability of many small institutions in changing framework conditions with increased internationalisation, interdisciplinary approaches and demands on quality development and cooperation with the private sector.

 Another issue involves the need to adjust programmes within the humanities and social sciences (that are the largest university faculties) to better meet labor market demands; currently only 50% of graduates in the humanities and 66% of social sciences graduates successfully enter the labor market upon  graduation.

In addition, Denmark with only one technical university lacks in engineers training too. Compared to Finland that has a polytechnic network of 29 institutions, it is obvious that efforts to enhance engineering in Denmark are required. OECD further points to uniform wage systems and high personal taxes as obstacles to growth in numbers of academics.

The Finnish higher education system is characterized by competitiveness, and is outcome and innovation focused. A “management by results” principle was early adopted in order to increase accountability. Universities have been granted higher autonomy and research councils have been reorganized to better respond to socio-economic demands and nterdisciplinarity. A key issue for the Finnish higher education system is the strengthening of university autonomy and a balanced development of the binary system of universities and

polytechnics. The high level of unemployment in Finland will most likely continue to pose a challenge to higher education policy as well as the great expectations that regional and other stakeholders have on institutions to contribute to socio-economic development. In the future, performance-based funding, taking into account employment rates of graduates will be increase. The education equality principle and lifelong learning approach will continue to be on the research and higher education agenda.

The Icelandic scientific system has remained unitary with many small institutions merging with larger universities. Diversification has hence been limited. However the domination of the University of Iceland is declining, followed by some diversification as other institutions (private as well) enroll an increasing number of students. Also, the research system has recently being reorganized. Major changes include restructuring of the Icelandic Research Council into a science and technology policy council with four ministries on its board.

Moreover, the establishment of two funding agencies, one for research and one for development and innovation, aims to enhance science – industry relations. Traditionally, graduates and R&D staff have been state employees. However, this is changing as the share of public R&D investments is consecutively declining and the corresponding share of the private sector is increasing. The introduction of tuition fees, increasing distance education and lifelong learning schemes are other issues of future concern for higher education policy.

The Norwegian higher education and research system focuses on competence development and coordination. There is currently a reform process in Norway aiming to improve quality, increase institutional autonomy and develop a more result-oriented higher education funding system. Other elements are the establishment of a continuous evaluation system, improvement of students’ financial support and increased internationalisation. The reorganization of the Research Council of Norway, based on an international evaluation in 2000-2001, aimed towards strengthening of long-term research and innovation, user oriented research and interdisciplinary approaches. Reforms met though significant opposition from academia. Meanwhile, demand for higher education seemed to decrease in Norway, resulting in policies meant to stabilize student enrolments on the one hand and consolidate institutional structures on the other. Other key issues in Norway include the need to improve

links between higher education and industry, and to reorganize university boards with greater external representation.

The Swedish higher education system focuses on integration, uniformity and equal distribution. Major changes have recently occurred in the structure of funding – eleven councils and agencies were transformed into three research councils and one research and technology agency. The main tasks of these bodies are to support fundamental research and promote renewal of the science system (giving special attention to young academics) and mobility.

Future issues on the research and higher education agenda include increased decentralization and institutional autonomy, continued quality improvement, increased focus on interdisciplinarity and cooperation with societal agents.

Other topics are further expansion and broader recruitment with respect to social background. The issue of building human resources in academia has to be considered in Sweden as well as the rest of the Nordic countries. Finally, it remains to be determined whether the uniformity of the Swedish system is feasible in the long run - growing differences between the different segments of the integrated system in almost every aspect (institutions, staff and number of students, research and resources) highlights the difficulty of maintaining a uniform system.

Información adicional

Información adicional sobre capital humano avanzado en ciencia y tecnología en los países nórdicos:

Science adn Technology in Denmark

Invest in Denmark

Resolution of the Science and Technology Policy Council

OECD, Policy Mix for Innovation in Iceland (PDF, 463 KB)

Nordforsk, independent institution operating under the Nordic Council of Ministers for Education and Research 

S&T Indicators for the European Research Area

EL CASO EUROPEO: LA FORMACIÓN EN PROGRAMAS AVANZADOS DE INVESTIGACIÓN (Ph.D.)

Europa: Alto Nivel de Recursos Humanos de la Ciencia y la Tecnología

El Informe Europe needs more scientists (PDF, 3580 KB) elaborado por High Level Group (HLG) 2004, aborda la situación del capital humano avanzado en el área de la Ciencia y la Tecnología  en Europa. Analiza los puntos claves que llevan a formular políticas a nivel de la comunidad europea  para  incrementar la dotación de científicos en Europa.

Since the Lisbon Delaration, heads of state and government across Europe have continued to stress the need to boost substantially the number of people entering science and technology careers. Indeed, at the 2002 European Summit in Barcelona heads of state called for an increase in the proportion of European GDP invested in research from 1.9% to 3%. In terms of human resources, it was estimated that an extra half a million researchers (or 1.2 million research-related personnel) would be needed to meet that goal.

HLG was part of the Commission’s strategy to address the Lisbon EU Summit declaration of March 2000: that Europe should become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion.

The HLG was set up to identify specific actions or policy measures which, within the context of the European Research Area, could help towards this goal.

Crisis en la Producción de Recursos Humanos Europea: Principal causa de un cambio de política

In 2001, the number of researchers per 1 000 of the workforce (in full-time equivalent, FTE) was 5.7 for the EU-15 (3.5 for acceding countries). Finland tops the list with 13.77. Between 1996 and 2001, the average annual growth rate was 2.6% for the EU-15 and 2.1% for acceding countries. For a majority of countries, employment in R&D has grown at a faster rate than total employment in the period 1995-2002, but there are large individual differences between the European countries. In the 1990s, the number of researchers per 1 000 labour force increased more than 100% in Greece and Portugal, and over 50% in Austria, Finland, Denmark, Sweden and Belgium.

However, those figures should be compared to a value of 9.14 researchers per 1 000 of the workforce (FTE) for Japan and 8.08 for the USA. Only some countries in Europe (Finland, Sweden, Norway) reach that standard and the most populated ones show much lower figures (Germany 6.55, UK 5.49, France 6.55). There is an important margin of progress possible in Europe to increase human resources in R&D.

The Lisbon and Barcelona EU objectives of attaining 3% of GDP for R&D (from the present level of around 2%) will roughly require a minimal level of eight researchers per thousand in the workforce. However, this objective will not be reached within a reasonable time (and certainly not in 2010, as targeted by the EU summits) should the present trends continue unchanged. On the other hand, a clear departure from stagnation or reduced growth rates in R&D employment in Europe will require important changes in the most relevant factors affecting this outcome. Our major concern is to understand how national and European policies may effectively contribute to that ambitious objective.

The number of SET graduates in Europe is higher than in the US and Japan, but the roportion of people aged 25-64 with a university degree is much lower in Europe than in Japan and the US. Europe’s strength is in its younger fraction of the population trained in SET. Europe would be catching up with the US and Japan in terms of researchers by 1 000 workers if employment in R&D were available for young people, if the number of those who choose to study SET was not allowed to diminish, if more women were involved in R&D, and if the southern countries accelerated their SET development. In particular, educational achievement and the rapid reduction of unacceptable, early dropout rates in many European countries will be key policy objectives to broaden the qualification pool for SET professions.

Demanda y Oferta de Científicos: Escasez en la Industria

Es clave para el desarrollo de la comunidad europea poder satisfacer la demanda de científicos en aquellos sectores de la economía donde Europa está en desventaja con respecto a USA y Japón. La política económica de Unión Europea tiene que apuntar en el aumento de nuevas industrias basadas en conocimientos y sin el incremento de científicos en este sector esto es imposible.

The Barcelona EU summit agreed to increase the EU expenditure on R&D to 3% of GDP by 2010. The natural consequence of this is that many more people trained as researchers in SET will be required by that date. From the Commission’s own figures, the extra numbers are in the order of 700 000.

Its important recognizes where this demand is likely to arise and the concomitant implications for the supply side. It has been shown that the largest increases in R&D spending will have to be met by industry. EU industry spending on R&D lags well behind that of its competitors in the USA and Japan. However, increasing the R&D expenditure of existing industries will not in itself meet the target – EU economic policy needs to be targeted at increasing the number of new knowledge-based industries if the industry contribution is to be meaningful. It has proved to be a recondite task to estimate exactly where and in which sectors of the economy the demand will be most keenly felt. In any knowledge-based economy it is prudent to expect the demand to be across all industrial v sectors. This does not ignore the fact that well-established industries will be drawing heavily on new technologies to make their business more competitive in the global market place. In addition, technology and the acquisition of technology has become global over the past few years, and this has given rise to a new paradigm in R&D. Businesses can no longer do it alone – they have to rely on new players in the technology stakes, whether this means exploiting their supply chain, venture funds, academia or inorganic acquisition via start-up companies.

This has led to the death of the concept of the corporate laboratories and corporately funded R&D. In general, they have now become the integrators of technology, not the primary movers in its discovery. This in itself has lead to a new role for universities where, in partnership with industry, they will become the outer ‘radar’ for businesses on new technology.

From a supply perspective, it has been argued that on the present trajectory of increasing the numbers entering SET careers, EU ambitions will not be met. There is a need for a step change in recruitment into SET at all levels. Dramatically increasing the number of women entering SET careers would go a long way towards helping to solve the problem, whereas reliance on importing suitably qualified workers from outside the EU is not sustainable in the long term, given the global nature of the market and the dynamics at play. It should not be forgotten that the EU itself is a source of such workers for other knowledge-based countries.

When this is put alongside the ageing SET population, the growing shortage of teachers, and the ‘greying’ of academic staff, the situation is serious. Only radical solutions are appropriate and must include the commitment to inject large portions of both national and Commission budgets into solving the problem. It is also apparent that this shortage is not felt across the whole of Europe, although it is argued that this in itself is not a steady state and migration to satisfy demand will surely occur. The need for standards in education and qualifications will be necessary if the ERA is to succeed. The Bologna Accord is a start in this process but it will only be successful if it embraces academic competencies and not time served on academic courses.

Poco interés en los jóvenes  para el área de la Ciencia

There is a widely held perception that careers in science, engineering and technology are very unattractive and hold little appeal for young people. This perception covers remuneration, career structure, work environment, status and marketing. From an industrial perspective, these perceptions appear not to be true (although more evidence across all European countries is probably needed). Remuneration of SET workers is in the upper quartile of professions, and the sustainability of remuneration is shown to hold for at least 11 years into their careers. It is also true that unemployment amongst holders of SET tertiary education qualifications is lower than that of the population at large. The diversity of careers for people with an SET background is shown to be great and probably far more varied than in any other sector. Taking all these aspects into account, it is difficult to understand why there are such difficulties with recruitment.

The conclusion has to be that industry and the professions are not selling careers in SET in the most attractive fashion, which is certainly an area for future attention.

Despite the risk from employment uncertainties – an aspect that must be true for every sector of the economy these days – industrial careers are shown to contrast with careers in academia and the public sector. Remuneration in the public sector is poor and career structures are not conducive to attracting both the quality and quantity of qualified people that are required.

Although there are other aspects of employment that do attract people to this section, these are not enough to tip the scales in favour of large numbers of people wanting to enter these professions. This is certainly an area that needs the full spotlight of national and European policy to be directed towards it as there are serious deficiencies now that must be remedied.

There is a general conclusion that the main emphasis on closing the 3% gap lies mainly with industry, so industry needs to promote careers in a more attractive way to prospective SET employees. However, it is not a job for industry alone. National governments, as well as the Commission, have a significant role to play and it is only through a coordinated approach that the problem can be solved. Good, well-remunerated, attractive careers in the public sector and academia need to be in place and marketed as such to future generations if the entire ERA and knowledge-based economy are to be fully realised. This is absolutely key to the future prosperity and competitiveness of the European zone.

Educación superior: La bases para el incremento de la  investigación

There is a need for higher education institutions to shift their scope and mode of operation from preparing experts for an industrial society to educating reflective personnel capable of contributing towards meeting the needs of a knowledge society. For instance, instead of presuming that all their SET students are headed for academic careers, universities should cater for and celebrate the whole range of research employment, including the relatively less prestigious jobs that many of their graduates will actually be taking. Curricula should explore the cultural and societal relevance more explicitly, and should reflect current societal SET needs more directly. Important job skills for all employment sectors include writing, oral presentation, management, data analysis, project design, critical thinking and collaborative work, and the ability to handle uncertainty in an interdisciplinary context. Research training, in association with and opening into industrial R&D, might also take the place of doctoral and postdoctoral programmes for many graduates. Full access for women, ethnic minority and disadvantage groups to courses leading to research careers should be further emphasised. The involvement of undergraduate students in research activities as a normal part of their curriculum is still very limited. Opening research laboratories and industries to the undergraduates in SET would promote a more realistic perception of research by students and could effectively contribute to increasing human resources for SET rapidly in Europe.

Educación para la ciencia, ingeniería y tecnología

Es de crucial importancia el fomento de las ciencias a los comienzos de la etapa escolar de los niños.

Most European countries have comprehensive and compulsory education, starting at the age of six or seven and lasting nine to ten years. In most countries, there are rather few curricular options and choices of subjects at this level. At these levels, the overall purpose of schooling is of a general nature: to develop the student, both individually and socially, and to develop competencies, knowledge, skills and attitudes that are deemed by each country to be important for future citizens. The details are most often laid down in official national curricula that give particulars on aims as well as on subjects and more specific contents, exams and assessment, etc.

In most countries, but to a varying degree, science is already taught from the primary level, and is compulsory at the secondary level. Some countries teach science as one integrated subject all the way through the compulsory school (and even further, e.g. Norway). Other countries organise their science curricula through separate sciences (e.g. biology, chemistry, physics), at least at the secondary level. There are interesting variations in the way science is 'packaged' and organised in schools in Europe, and one might learn much from sharing such experiences. Technology is, to an increasing degree, part of the curriculum for the compulsory school – in some countries (like Sweden) as a separate subject, in other countries as a part of a more broadly defined science subject. There are, however, wide variations as to how technology is defined and framed in the curriculum. In some countries, it is learning about tools and simple technical devices; in others it is defined as modern ICT (Information and Communication Technology). In some countries, technology is about simple experiments and making and constructing things 'that work'. Other countries (like the UK) use the term ‘Design and Technology’. This variation makes simple comparisons difficult, but might be a source for learning from others' experiences.

Students' choice of subjects, according to their own will, plans, ambitions, values, etc., takes place at various levels in the different countries. Some have specialisation (and selection) at an early age; others postpone streaming as well as subject choices to a much later age. The experiences with such systems of choice might be a source for learning from others’ experiences. Statistics also show that the percentage of students opting for SET subjects varies strongly between countries. These differences between the countries are of course also taken further up into the tertiary level, and indicate the importance of looking carefully at how and why students choose school subjects as they do.

The choice of school subjects often results in a gendered pattern, where some subjects become boys’ subjects, while others are dominated by girls. The resulting gender pattern is stereotypical, but the variations in this pattern between countries might give reason for critical examination and reflection of the science curriculum as well as of teaching practices and methods.

It is a sad fact that in most countries very few students who have specialised in SET or mathematics are recruited into teacher education. The future teacher is more likely to have a preference for other subjects. In their teaching training, they can often continue to avoid SET subjects.

This seems to be the case for most countries at the primary level, while the degree of subject specialisation varies between countries at the secondary level. At the upper secondary level, most countries have better SET-qualified teachers, although many countries today suffer from a lack of newly qualified entrants into the SET teaching workforce.

Paradoxically, the more a society has a need for people with a SET background, the less likely is it that such people will enter the teaching profession. Part of the reason is that remuneration, working conditions, possibilities for in-service training, etc. make the teaching profession less attractive than other areas of work for people who are in demand. Wellqualified and motivated SET teachers are key when it comes to stimulating future generations’ interest in science and technology and SET careers. Hence, in the long run, the future lack of well-qualified SET teachers may be even more serious than the current demand for researchers and scientists.

 There is an obvious need for more research in science and technology education to address aspects such as students’ motivation and interest, and of R&D to bridge the gap between research on science learning, on the one hand, and science teaching practice on the other. An improvement in our understanding of these aspects could contribute constructively to the effort to increase interest in science and technology education.

El contexto cultural de reclutamiento para carreras de investigación

Strategies for science popularisation have been in use since the 17th century, and remain very active today. They are usually supported by governments, public institutions, research organisations, scientists, museums, and science centres, using a variety of forms. They can be divided into two approaches: classical public understanding of science trying to bring more information and knowledge of science matters to a general public and to young people; and a networking approach based on the idea that extended dialogue and direct contact between citizens and scientists is necessary in order to promote scientific culture in society and to help citizens to acquire a better understanding of controversial issues related to science and technology.

It has been pointed out that the rational basis of the science invented in Europe and its goal to ‘tame’ Nature met strong resistance in European history. This feature of European culture deserves special attention today as the very image of science and technology in society and students’ attitudes to science seem to reflect this fundamental duality.

Media are a very important intermediate between science and people – 60% say that they get their scientific information from television. However, the media (TV, radio, movies, newspapers, magazines, novels, comics, etc.) have their own rules and use science and technology mainly as a source of narratives that attract people through conventional storytelling and spectacular images or situations. Nevertheless, they make science familiar and this is a main point of entry for the introduction of science into society. In this respect, some EU data from recent public opinion surveys about science and technology and knowledge issues have also been summarised.

Mujeres en ciencia y tecnología: Diferencias de géneros

The number of women in education and in employment across Europe has increased in the last 20 years, as indeed has the number of women entering science. However, women remain severely under-represented in many areas of scientific research and in many countries, and are still not reaching the upper echelons of the research hierarchies.

Much has been achieved in promoting women’s participation in scientific research since

1999, when the European Commission launched its action plan on women and science, in cooperation with Member States and other key actors. As a result, there are a number of reports and statistical documents devoted to this subject. Women remain the most obvious source for increasing human resources for science and technology in Europe. However, drastic changes in the present unsatisfactory situation can only come from joint consistent efforts by both science policy and social and economic policies.

A note is added on SET recruitment from non-traditional sources, namely the diverse ethnic minority groups in the European population. This issue has not been well studied in Europe and data are lacking especially on the differences in participation and achievement in SET between different ethnic groups.

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EL CONSEJO EUROPEO DE CANDIDATOS DOCTORALES E INVESTIGADORES

El Consejo Europeo de candidatos doctorales y de investigadores jóvenes (EURODOC) fue fundado en Girona (España) en 02/02/02. Toma la forma de una federación de asociaciones nacionales de los candidatos de Ph.D. y de los investigadores jóvenes.

Los objetivos de EURODOC son:

Normas de Evaluación, Expectativas y Resultados de Programas Doctorales Europeos

Esta declaración ha sido realizada por EURODOC,  con el objetivo de identificar los objetivos comunes que deberían ser encontrados en la evaluación y los resultados de programas doctorales en Europa. Aunque sean diferentes los métodos de poner en práctica tales objetivos, es importante tanto para el investigador como para la comunidad de investigación que candidatos doctorales sostienen un nivel comparable.

Assessment of a Doctorate

The following 6 guidelines built upon the Dublin Descriptors are agreed by Eurodoc as appropriate indicators that are achieved by a candidate in a doctoral examination:

1. Have demonstrated a systematic understanding of a field of study and mastery of the skills and methods of research associated with that field.

2. Have demonstrated the ability to conceive, design, implement and adapt a substantial process of research with scholarly integrity.

3. Have made a contribution through original research that extends the frontier of knowledge by developing a substantial body of work, some of which potentially is worthy of submission to refereed publication.

4. Are capable of critical analysis, evaluation and synthesis of new and complex ideas.

5. Can communicate with their peers, the larger scholarly community and with society in general about their areas of expertise and defend their contributions to knowledge.

6. Can be expected to be able to promote, within academic and professional contexts, technological, social or cultural advancement in a knowledge based society.

Outcomes and Expectations of Doctorates

To ensure that there are common expectations of a researcher, it is necessary that the following minimum outcomes and expectations from their doctorate are maintained:

• That the thesis or equivalent documentation becomes a publicly accessible resource with the exception of withholding any information that is subject to intellectual property rights. Details of such published documents must be readily accessible via appropriate electronic search engines as would be expected for other publications.

• That there are means to ensure transparency and fairness in the examination procedure in order that there is a witness present to testify to their achievements or whom can act as a backup should the outcome of the examination be challenged in an appeal.

• That a Master level qualification in the majority of cases is the entry requirement to a doctorate although equivalent experience or qualifications are also a valid, while also all applications should be subject to a systematic admissions procedure involving people in addition to the prospective supervisor(s).

 • That the thesis has been defended against examiners both internal and external to the institution with suitable expertise in the subject area, ensuring that these examiners are chosen fairly.

• That there is opportunity for critical review, first from the supervisor and then the examiners to allow minor corrections if the thesis contains errors, though is worthy of a doctorate. Where the thesis is not successful, examiners should be expected to clearly recommend necessary major corrections subject to re-submission.

 • That the doctoral candidate will have had experience and opportunities to continually develop their transferable skills including ability to independently take on and complete a task, increased leadership roles, publications, experience in original thought, competence in research methodologies, transfer of knowledge, economy and job market.

Eurodoc realiza recommendations for the organisation of Core Research Career Structures in academia (PDF, 81 KB) debido a que Throughout Europe, the current traditions of academic research jobs correspond to vaguely characterised positions in terms of experience, skills and duties, especially at the level of the initial and intermediate stages of the research career. This leads to a lack of attractiveness in terms of recruitment, career progression and working conditions, and hampers career driven mobility. To overcome this situation, it is necessary to redefine career structures in academia and consider that researchers are professionals with well defined duties to fulfil for a given career track position, and who gain experience and skills from their work, thus enabling them to move to the next step of their career

Información Adicional sobre trabajo realizado por EURODOC

Conclusions and Recommendations EURODOC 2005 Conference, Strasbourg, March 2005 (PDF, 65 KB)

Supervision and Training Charter for Early Stage Researchers (PDF, 238 KB)

Información sobra la situación de Programas de Doctorado y Post-Doctorado elaborado por EURODOC en los siguentes países

La movilidad internacional de Recursos Humanos para CyT

Una de las variables claves para determinar la situación de los países con respecto al recurso humano en ciencia y tecnología en comparación con el resto del mundo, es a través de un sistema de medición homologo entre países es por esto que se le ha dado un gran énfasis ha esto.

OECD Methodology for Tracking Doctorate Holders and Measuring International Mobility of human resources for science and technology (HRST)

El informe preparado por  el sexto taller  Ibero e interamericano sobre Indicadores de Ciencia y  Tecnología y Indicators, analiza la importancia que posee la medición del recurso humano para la ciencia y la tecnología, esta es de alta prioridad par el Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy (CSTP).

En el Comité de los los recientes CSTP Ministerial (el 29-30 de enero de 2004), los ministros de ciencia de países de OCDE acordaron la necesidad  de mejorar los datos sobre el desarrollo y la movilidad de recursos humanos en la ciencia y la tecnología y recoger.

Recent OECD activities in measuring HRST

The OECD re-launched its HRST activities around 2001. Since that time consultations were held with recognised experts in the field and in-depth discussions on the potential and limitations of various data sources and co-ordination efforts were launched with other OECD directorates, as well as with Eurostat and the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). At the RICYT workshop in Montevideo in 2001, the OECD presented an overview of the main data sources and their limitations.  For example, although registers and/or administrative data potentially offer a rich set of indicators, their use is limited to a small number of countries and they have their own drawbacks. Labour force surveys are more widely available but limited by the fact that they are sample surveys preventing the cross-classification of variables at a very detailed level. Censuses are the richest source of data but their frequency does not respond to the need for regular analysis. Education statistics remain the most robust source of data, although they present only the supply side of HRST and not of their deployment in the labour market. Since 2001, some progress has been made on methodological and data issues, most notably in the areas of data development and Human Resources for Research and Development (HRRD).

In the area of data development, the objective is to develop basic data on HRST stocks and flows in ECD non-EU countries that are comparable with EU data compiled by Eurostat. Databases already exist within the OECD Secretariat, permitting the compilation of some of the main stock and flow aggregates such as the database on education statistics and the database on educational attainment. The main stock aggregates compiled by Eurostat, such as HRST by occupation (HRSTO), core HRST, stocks of scientists and engineers (S&E), etc. use the Community Labour Force Survey (CLFS) as a data source. The OECD Secretariat is working at identifying equivalent data sources in non-EU countries, setting up partnerships with responsible national agencies, working on correspondence keys, etc. in order to collect and compile similar HRST datasets.

Development of surveys of careers of doctorate holders

It is now widely recognised that a highly educated workforce is a pre-requisite for sustaining economic growth in an economy which is increasingly characterised as knowledge-based. Yet, the links between the training of highly skilled professionals and their careers on the labour market are ill-captured. While measures of education performance exist through the numbers of enrolments and graduates at the different levels of education, as well as measures of the characteristics of the labour force through employment status and occupations, characterising the links between supply from the education system and demand on the labour market is however difficult. There is a crucial lack of information on the schoolto-work transition of graduates, the compatibility of their educational background with their occupation, their trajectories on the labour market, and their domestic and international mobility.

International mobility of HRST

The international mobility of HRST and of researchers is also increasingly attracting the attention of analysts and policy makers. The OECD Secretariat organised a conference in 2001 on the internacional mobility of the highly skilled, which highlighted the severe lack of data in this area. This lack of data has also been stated many times by other analysts. The objective of the OECD is to build a minimum set of data, which could at least partially respond to some of the policy questions, taking into account and despite the difficulties in this area.

Información  adicional para los países de la OECD:

OECD, Human resources in science and technology: knowledge and skills